Question: Explain the difference between a linear

> Describe the pattern that would appear in a scatter plot showing the data points for each of the following correlations: r = –0.9 and r = +0.3.

> Explain the distinction between experimental and nonexperimental research strategies.

> Although the cohort effect can be a serious problem for cross-sectional research, it is not a problem for longitudinal designs. Explain why not.

> What is a ceiling effect, and how can it be a problem?

> Explain how a matched-subjects design attempts to avoid the major problem with between-subjects experiments (individual differences) and the major problem with within-subjects experiments (time-related factors).

> Why are studies that examine the effects of aging not considered true experiments?

> Identify the two active methods of preventing extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables.

> A researcher measures personality characteristics for a group of participants who successfully lost weight in a diet program, and compared their scores with a second group consisting of individuals who failed to lose weight in the program. Is this study

> The following data show the pattern of results that was obtained in a study by Liguori and Robinson (2001) examining how different levels of alcohol and caffeine consumption influenced response time in a simulated driving test. The means show the average

> Briefly explain why a clinical psychologist might prefer doing research with a single-subject design instead of traditional group design.

> Give an example of a situation (aside from gender) in which a researcher must examine preexisting groups.

> Explain why we can be more confident about causal relationships between variables when a quasi-experimental design is used instead of a nonexperimental design.

> Explain how using college students as participants in a study may limit the external validity of a study’s research findings

> Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using random assignment as a method to prevent individual differences from becoming confounding variables.

> A researcher would like to compare two methods for teaching math to third-grade students. Two third-grade classes are obtained for the study. Mr. Jones teaches one class using method A, and Mrs. Smith teaches the other class using method B. At the end of

> If a researcher selects a sample from each of the following populations, then which is likely to be a probability sample, and which is likely to be a nonprobability sample? a. The population consists of the class of entering freshmen at a local college.

> In an experiment examining human memory, two groups of participants are used. One group is allowed 5 minutes to study a list of 40 words and the second group is given 10 minutes of study time for the same list of words. Then, both groups are given a memo

> Dr. Jones conducted a study examining the relationship between the amount of sugar in a child’s diet and the activity level of the child. A sample of thirty four-year-old children from a local preschool was used in the study. Sugar consumption was measur

> Explain how the enforcement of confidentiality benefits both the participants and the researcher.

> A researcher evaluates a new cholesterol medication by measuring cholesterol levels for a group of patients before they begin taking the medication and after they have been taking the medication for eight weeks. A second researcher measures quality of li

> Under what circumstances would it be difficult to interpret the results of a multiple-baseline design?

> Explain why plagiarism is unethical.

> What is the general purpose of a manipulation check?

> What is the general purpose for using a simulation or a field study for experimental research?

> Describe how the cliché “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink” can be used to explain a person’s behavior.

> A researcher finds that college students are more anxious near final exams in December than at the beginning of the semester in September. However, it is not clear whether the anxiety is caused by exams or by the change in season. Does this study have a

> A researcher claims that intelligence can be measured by measuring the length of a person’s right-hand ring finger. Explain why this procedure is very reliable but probably not valid.

> A researcher conducts a study with 6-year-old children at a summer computer camp for gifted children. However, the researcher suspects that different results would be obtained if the study were conducted with nongifted 6-year-old children. Does this stud

> How is the descriptive strategy different from the other four research strategies?

> A researcher conducting a political poll for a statewide election would like to know the attitudes of college students concerning the candidates. A sample of 200 upperclassmen from the state university is selected to participate in the survey. For this s

> An expert appears on a shopping network to explain how the different candle fragrances they are selling influence people’s moods and behaviors. Explain how you could determine whether the expert’s theories are science or pseudoscience.

> Describe the basic problem with a split-half correlation that the K-R-20 and Cronbach’s alphas are designed to correct.

> Explain how the nonprobability technique of quota sampling can be used to mimic the probability technique of stratified random sampling.

> State a hypothesis that identifies a specific variable that causes some people to choose red as their favorite color. Create a prediction from your hypothesis.

> Under what circumstances is a proportionate stratified random sample preferred to a simple random sample?

> Under what circumstances is a stratified random sample preferred to a simple random sample?

> A clinical researcher has developed a new test measuring impulsiveness and would like to determine the validity of the test. The new test and an established measure of impulsiveness are both administered to a sample of participants. Describe the pattern

> A researcher studying cyberbullying among middle-school students interviews a group of students from a local middle school about their cyberbullying experiences. For this study, identify the target population, the accessible population, and the sample.

> The college offers all students an optional seminar on note-taking and study skills. Suppose that a researcher compares personality scores for students who elected to take the seminar with the scores for students who did not. Identify the quasi-independe

> Cohen’s kappa was developed to deal with a particular problem with measuring interrater reliability. Identify the problem that the technique attempts to solve.

> Suppose that a complex therapy procedure contains one component that has absolutely no effect on behavior. Explain how a component design could be used to demonstrate that the component has no effect.

> Explain how an artifact can limit the validity and reliability of a measurement.

> Identify the appropriate hypothesis test for each of the following research situations. a. A researcher conducts a between-subjects study to determine whether there is a significant difference in problem-solving ability between older adults who are gener

> Although researchers typically begin a single-case reversal study with the intention of using an ABAB design, what outcome can cause the researcher to switch to a more complex phase-change design?

> At the beginning of this chapter, we described a study in which participants shouted either a swear word or a neutral word over and over while holding one hand in a bowl of ice water. The study obtained two scores for each participant: how long the pain

> To evaluate the effectiveness of a new television commercial, a researcher measures attitudes toward the advertised product for a group of consumers before and after they view the commercial. Identify one factor that threatens the internal validity of th

> A hypothesis test attempts to rule out chance, or sampling error, as a plausible explanation for the results from a research study. Explain how a hypothesis test accomplishes this goal.

> Briefly explain what is meant when a researcher reports “a significant mean difference between two treatment conditions.”

> Describe the general concept of sampling error and explain why this concept creates a problem to be addressed by inferential statistics.

> Describe a distribution of scores that has a mean of M = 30 and a standard deviation of SD = 6 (Where are the scores centered? What range of values contains most of the scores?)

> Under what circumstances are the median and the mode considered to be better than the mean for describing central tendency?

> List the major sections of an APA-style report in order of appearance:

> The purpose of an independent measures t-test is to determine whether the mean difference obtained between two groups in a between-subjects study is greater than could reasonably be expected by chance. In other words, the test determines whether the data

> A researcher who is interested in examining the eating behavior of adolescents records the number of calories consumed each day by each individual in a sample of 25 adolescents and computes the average for the sample. For this study, what is the statisti

> What is the goal of a single-case experimental research design?

> In addition to the key words that were defined in the text, you should be able to define the following terms, which also appear in the glossary:

> In general, how does a phase-change design like the ABAB reversal design demonstrate that the treatment (rather than chance or coincidence) is responsible for causing changes in behavior?

> Identify the four phases that make up an ABAB (reversal) design, and describe how the participant’s behavior is expected to change each time the phase is changed if the study is successful.

> Describe the appearance of a scatter plot showing the data from a set of scores that produces a Pearson correlation of r = −0.76.

> Define content analysis, and explain how it is different from regular behavioral observation.

> Traditional statistics (means, variances, and hypothesis tests) are not used to evaluate the results from a single-case study. Explain how the results are evaluated.

> Identify the basic goals for descriptive statistics and for inferential statistics.

> In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define each of the following terms: Frequency distribution Histogram Polygon Bar graph Degrees of freedom, df Line graph Scatter plot Pearson correlation Spearman correlation Regression equation Sl

> Explain how increasing the size of the sample size can influence the outcome of a hypothesis test.

> What pattern of results is needed to provide convincing evidence that behavior changed when the phase was changed?

> In this chapter, we introduced the observational research design, the survey research design, and the case study research design as examples of descriptive research strategies. What differentiates these three designs from other types of research that use

> What are demand characteristics, and how do they limit the validity of the measurements obtained in a research study?

> How does a multiple-baseline design rule out chance or coincidence as the explanation for changes in behavior that occur when the treatment is started?

> Explain how a time-series design minimizes most threats to internal validity from time-related variables.

> Most research in the behavioral sciences involves gathering information from a group of participants. However, the case study design focuses on a single individual. Under what circumstances is the case study approach preferred to a group design?

> Under what circumstances would you use a multiple-baseline design instead of an ABAB (reversal) design?

> In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define the following terms: statistical significance/statistically significant result practical significance or clinical significance

> Each of the following research studies uses a survey as a method for collecting data. However, not all of the studies are examples of the survey research design. Based on the information provided for each study, (a) indicate whether it is or is not an e

> What is the general advantage of using the survey research design instead of the observational design? In the same context, what is the disadvantage of survey research?

> Describe the relationship between the alpha level and the likelihood of making a Type I error.

> Explain the distinction between naturalistic and contrived observation, and describe the situations in which contrived observation may be particularly useful.

> Each of the following studies examines the relationship between sugar consumption and activity level for preschool children. Identify which is correlational, which is experimental, and which is nonexperimental. Study 1: A researcher obtains a sample of 1

> Describe the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning and give an example of each.

> Describe how the concept of participant reactivity might explain why a person’s behavior during a job interview is very different from a person's behavior with friends.

> A researcher wants to describe how fine motor skills change as a group of infants age from 18 to 24 months. Describe how this study could be done as a cross-sectional design. Next, describe how this study could be done as a longitudinal study.

> Outline the major advantages and disadvantages of administering a survey by mail.

> In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define each of the following terms: Descriptive research strategy Behavioral observation Habituation Behavior categories Inter-rater reliability Frequency method Duration method Interval method Ti

> Describe how the third-variable problem and the directionality problem limit the interpretation of results from correlational research designs.

> For a two-factor research study with two levels for factor A and four levels for factor B, how many participants are needed to obtain five scores in each treatment condition for each of the following situations? a. Both factors are between-subjects. b. B

> In Figure 11.5, we show three combinations of main effects and interactions for a 2 × 2 factorial design. Using the same 2 × 2 structure, with factor A defining the rows and factor B defining the columns, create a set of means that produce each of the fo

> Define the three types of survey questions (open-ended, restricted, and rating-scale) and identify the relative strengths and weaknesses of each.

> In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define each of the following terms: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Plagiarism Author note Subjects subsection Participants subsection Procedure subsection Apparatus su

> What are some reasons why consolidated reports are thought to be relevant?

> What is meant by the term one-line consolidation? What differences occur in financial statements when a one-line consolidation rather than full consolidation is used?

> Is the treatment of unrecognized prior service cost and actuarial gains/ losses in SFAS No. 87 an example of the asset-liability or revenue-expense orientation?

> What prompted FASB Accounting Standards Update 2009-09?

> What does the term functional currency mean?

> While ERISA has been helpful, how well are employees protected in situations where overfunded pension plans exist?

> Current discussions by the Boards leave room open for two Accounting for Leases Standards; one for lessee and another one for lessor. Should two Accounting for Leases Standards be issued? Support your response?

> Why is the G4+1 like the Big Ten (a.k.a. Western Athletic Conference)?

> Compare the present system involving consolidation, equity method, and fair value accounting for intercorporate equity investments with finite uniformity as it exists in lease accounting.

> Should valuable lease options of lessees be capitalized?

> What issues of qualitative characteristics of accounting information (SFAC No. 2) are important relative to accrual accounting for OPEBs?

> What is the danger, particularly to older employees of restructuring pension plans into “cash benefit plans?”

> Why does the elimination of poolings improve representational faithfulness and comparability.